(1) Color. Color relates to the quality of light reflected from the metal.

(2) Mass or density. Mass or density relates to mass with respect to volume. Commonly known as specific gravity, this property is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the metal to the mass of the same volume of water at a specified temperature, usually 39°F (4°C). For example, the ratio of weight of one cubic foot of water to one cubic foot of cast iron is the specific gravity of cast iron. This property is measured by grams per cubic millimeter or centimeter in the metric system.

(3) Melting point. The melting point of a metal is important with regard to welding. A metal�s fusibility is related to its melting point, the temperature at which the metal changes from a solid to a molten state. Pure substances have a sharp melting point and pass from a solid state to a liquid without a change in temperature. During this process, however, there is an absorption of heat during melting and a liberation of heat during freezing. The absorption or release of thermal energy when a substance changes state is called its latent heat. Mercury is the only common metal that is in its molten state at normal room temperature. Metals having low melting temperatures can be welded with lower temperature heat sources. The soldering and brazing processes utilize low-temperature metals to join metals having higher melting temperatures.

(4) Boiling point. Boiling point is also an important factor in welding. The boiling point is the temperature at which the metal changes from the liquid state to the vapor state. Some metals, when exposed to the heat of an arc, will vaporize.

(5) Conductivity. Thermal and electrical conductivity relate to the metal�s ability to conduct or transfer heat and electricity. Thermal conductivity, the ability of a metal to transmit heat throughout its mass, is of vital importance in welding, since one metal may transmit heat from the welding area much more quickly than another. The thermal conductivity of a metal indicates the need for preheating and the size of heat source required. Thermal conductivity is usually related to copper. Copper has the highest thermal conductivity of the common metals, exceeded only by silver. Aluminum has approximately half the thermal conductivity of copper, and steels have abut one-tenth the conductivity of copper. Thermal conductivity is measured in calories per square centimeter per second per degree Celsius. Electrical conductivity is the capacity of metal to conduct an electric current. A measure of electrical conductivity is provided by the ability of a metal to conduct the passage of electrical current. Its opposite is resistivity, which is measured in micro-ohms per cubic centimeter at a standardize temperature, usually 20°C. Electrical conductivity is usually considered as a percentage and is related to copper or silver. Temperature bears an important part in this property. As temperature of a metal increases, its conductivity decreases. This property is particularly important to resistance welding and to electrical circuits.

(6) Coefficient of linear thermal expansion. With few exceptions, solids expand when they are heated and contract when they are cooled. The coefficient of linear thermal expansion is a measure of the linear increase per unit length based on the change in temperature of the metal. Expansion is the increase in the dimension of a metal caused by heat. The expansion of a metal in a longitudinal direction is known as the linear expansion. The coefficient of linear expansion is expressed as the linear expansion per unit length for one degree of temperature increase. When metals increase in size, they increase not only in length but also in breadth and thickness. This is called volumetric expansion. The coefficient of linear and volumetric expansion varies over a wide range for different metals. Aluminum has the greatest coefficient of expansion, expanding almost twice as much as steel for the same temperature change. This is important for welding with respect to warpage, wapage control and fixturing, and for welding together dissimilar metals.

(7) Corrosion resistance. Corrosion resistance is the resistance to eating or wearing away by air, moisture, or other agents.

(1) Tensile strength. Tensile strength is defined as the maximum load in tension a material will withstand before fracturing, or the ability of a material to resist being pulled apart by opposing forces. Also known as ultimate strength, it is the maximum strength developed in a metal in a tension test. (The tension test is a method for determining the behavior of a metal under an actual stretch loading. This test provides the elastic limit, elongation, yield point, yield strength, tensile strength, and the reduction in area.) The tensile strength is the value most commonly given for the strength of a material and is given in pounds per square inch (psi) (kiloPascals (kPa)). The tensile strength is the number of pounds of force required to pull apart a bar of material 1.0 in. (25.4 mm) wide and 1.00 in. (25.4 mm) thick (fig. 7-1).

(2) Shear strength. Shear strength is the ability of a material to resist being fractured by opposing forces acting of a straight line but not in the same plane, or the ability of a metal to resist being fractured by opposing forces not acting in a straight line (fig. 7-2).

(3) Fatigue strength. Fatigue strength is the maximum load a material can withstand without failure during a large number of reversals of load. For example, a rotating shaft which supports a weight has tensile forces on the top portion of the shaft and compressive forces on the bottom. As the shaft is rotated, there is a repeated cyclic change in tensile and compressive strength. Fatigue strength values are used in the design of aircraft wings and other structures subject to rapidly fluctuating loads. Fatigue strength is influenced by microstructure, surface condition, corrosive environment, and cold work.

(4) Compressive strength. Compressive strength is the maximum load in compression a material will withstand before a predetermined amount of deformation, or the ability of a material to withstand pressures acting in a given plane (fig. 7-3). The compressive strength of both cast iron and concrete are greater than their tensile strength. For most materials, the reverse is true.

(5) Elasticity. Elasticity is the ability of metal to return to its original size, shape, and dimensions after being deformed, stretched, or pulled out of shape. The elastic limit is the point at which permanent damage starts. The yield point is the point at which definite damage occurs with little or no increase in load. The yield strength is the number of pounds per square inch (kiloPascals) it takes to produce damage or deformation to the yield point.

(6) Modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of the internal stress to the strain produced.

(7) Ductility. The ductility of a metal is that property which allows it to be stretched or otherwise changed in shape without breaking, and to retain the changed shape after the load has been removed. It is the ability of a material, such as copper, to be drawn or stretched permanently without fracture. The ductility of a metal can be determined by the tensile test by determining the percentage of elongation. The lack of ductility is brittleness or the lack of showing any permanent damage before the metal cracks or breaks (such as with cast iron).

(8) Plasticity. Plasticity is the ability of a metal to be deformed extensively without rupture. Plasticity is similar to ductility.

(9) Malleability. Malleability is another form of plasticity, and is the ability of a material to deform permanently under compression without rupture. It is this property which allows the hammering and rolling of metals into thin sheets. Gold, silver, tin, and lead are examples of metals exhibiting high malleability. Gold has exceptional malleability and can be rolled into sheets thin enough to transmit light.

(10) Reduction of area. This is a measure of ductility and is obtained from the tensile test by measuring the original cross-sectional area of a specimen to a cross-sectional area after failure.

(11) Brittleness. Brittleness is the property opposite of plasticity or ductility. A brittle metal is one than cannot be visibly deformed permanently, or one that lacks plasticity.

(12) Toughness. Toughness is a combination of high strength and medium ductility. It is the ability of a material or metal to resist fracture, plus the ability to resist failure after the damage has begun. A tough metal, such as cold chisel, is one that can withstand considerable stress, slowly or suddenly applied, and which will deform before failure. Toughness is the ability of a material to resist the start of permanent distortion plus the ability to resist shock or absorb energy.

(13) Machinability and weldability. The property of machinability and weldability is the ease or difficulty with which a material can be machined or welded.

(14) Abrasion resistance. Abrasion resistance is the resistance to wearing by friction.

(15) Impact resistance. Resistance of a metal to impacts is evaluated in terms of impact strength. A metal may possess satisfactory ductility under static loads, but may fail under dynamic loads or impact. The impact strength of a metal is determined by measuring the energy absorbed in the fracture.

(16) Hardness. Hardness is the ability of a metal to resist penetration and wear by another metal or material. It takes a combination of hardness and toughness to withstand heavy pounding. The hardness of a metal limits the ease with which it can be machined, since toughness decreases as hardness increases. Table 7-3 illustrates hardness of various metals.

(1) Appearance test. The appearance test includes such things as color and appearance of machined as well as unmachined surfaces. Form and shape give definite clues as to the identity of the metal. The shape can be descriptive; for example, shape includes such things as cast engine blocks, automobile bumpers, reinforcing rods, I beams or angle irons, pipes, and pipe fittings. Form should be considered and may show how the part was rode, such as a casting with its obvious surface appearance and parting mold lines, or hot rolled wrought material, extruded or cold rolled with a smooth surface. For example, pipe can be cast, in which case it would be cast iron, or wrought, which would normally be steel. Color provides a very strong clue in metal identification. It can distinguish many metals such as copper, brass, aluminum, magnesium, and the precious metals. If metals are oxidized, the oxidation can be scraped off to determine the color of the unoxidized metal. This helps to identify lead, magnesium, and even copper. The oxidation on steel, or rust, is usually a clue that can be used to separate plain carbon steels from the corrosion-resisting steels.

(2) Fracture test. Some metal can be quickly identified by looking at the surface of the broken part or by studying the chips produced with a hammer and chisel. The surface will show the color of the base metal without oxidation. This will be true of copper, lead, and magnesium. In other cases, the coarseness or roughness of the broken surface is an indication of its structure. The ease of breaking the part is also an indication of its ductility of lack of ductility. If the piece bends easily without breaking, it is one of the more ductile metals. If it breaks easily with little or no bending, it is one of the brittle metals.

(3) Spark test. The spark test is a method of classifying steels and iron according to their composition by observing the sparks formed when the metal is held against a high speed grinding wheel. This test does not replace chemical analysis, but is a very convenient and fast method of sorting mixed steels whose spark characteristics are known. When held lightly against a grinding wheel, the different kinds of iron and steel produce sparks that vary in length, shape, and color. The grinding wheel should be run to give a surface speed of at least 5000 ft (1525 m) per minute to get a good spark stream. Grinding wheels should be hard enough to wear for a reasonable length of time, yet soft enough to keep a free-cutting edge. Spark testing should be done in subdued light, since the color of the spark is important. In all cases, it is best to use standard samples of metal for the purpose of comparing their sparks with that of the test sample.

(4) Torch test. With the oxyacetylene torch, the welder can identify various metals by studying how fast the metal melts and how the puddle of molten metal and slag looks, as well as color changes during heating. When a sharp corner of a white metal part is heated, the rate of melting can be an indication of its identity. If the material is aluminum, it will not melt until sufficient heat has been used because its high conductivity. If the part is zinc, the sharp corner will melt quickly, since zinc is not a good conductor. In the case of copper, if the sharp comer melts, it is normally deoxidized copper. If it does not melt until much heat has been applied, it is electrolytic copper. Copper alloys, if composed of lead, will boil. To distinguish aluminum from magnesium, apply the torch to filings. Magnesium will burn with a sparkling white flame. Steel will show characteristic colors before melting.

(5) Magnetic test. The magnetic test can be quickly performed using a small pocket magnet. With experience, it is possible to judge a strongly magnetic material from a slightly magnetic material. The nonmagnetic materials are easily recognized. Strongly magnetic materials include the carbon and low-alloy steels, iron alloys, pure nickel, and martensitic stainless steels. A slightly magnetic reaction is obtained from Monel and high-nickel alloys and the stainless steel of the 18 chrome 8 nickel type when cold worked, such as in a seamless tube. Nonmagnetic materials include copper-base alloys, aluminum-base alloys, zinc-base alloys, annealed 18 chrome 8 nickel stainless, the magnesium, and the precious metals.

(6) Chisel test. The chip test or chisel test may also be used to identify metals. The only tools required are a banner and a cold chisel. Use the cold chisel to hammer on the edge or corner of the material being examined. The ease of producing a chip is an indication of the hardness of the metal. If the chip is continuous, it is indicative of a ductile metal, whereas if chips break apart, it indicates a brittle material. On such materials as aluminum, mild steel and malleable iron, the chips are continuous. They are easily chipped and the chips do not tend to break apart. The chips for gray cast iron are so brittle that they become small, broken fragments. On high-carbon steel, the chips are hard to obtain because of the hardness of the material, but can be continuous.

(7) Hardness test. Refer to table 7-3 for hardness values of the various metals, and to the above information on the three hardness tests that are commonly used. A less precise hardness test is the file test. A summary of the reaction to filing, the approximate Brinell hardness, and the possible type of steel is shown in table 7-6. A sharp mill file must be used. It is assumed that the part is steel and the file test will help identify the type of steel.

(8) Chemical test. There are numerous chemical tests than can be made in the shop to identify some material. Monel can be distinguished form Inconel by one drop of nitric acid applied to the surface. It will turn blue-green on Monel, but will show no reaction on Inconel. A few drops of a 45 percent phosphoric acid will bubble on low-chromium stainless steels. Magnesium can be distinguished from aluminum using silver nitrate, which will leave a black deposit on magnesium, but not on aluminum. These tests can become complicated, and for this reason are not detailed further here.

(1) Wrought iron.

(2) Cast iron (gray, white, and malleable).

(3) Steel.

(4) Cast steel.

(5) Steel forgings.

(6) Alloy steel.

(7) Special steel. Plate steel is used in the manufacture of built-up welded structures such as gun carriages. In using nickel plate steel, it has been found that commercial grades of low-alloy structural steel of not over 0.25 percent carbon, and several containing no nickel at all, are better suited to welding than those with a maximum carbon content of 0.30 percent. Armorplate, a low carbon alloyed steel, is an example of this kind of plate. Such plate is normally used in the "as rolled" condition. Electric arc welding with a covered electrode may require preheating of the metal, followed by a proper stress-relieving heat treatment (post heating), to produce a structure in which the welded joint has properties equal to those of the plate metal.

(1) Aluminum (Al).

(2) Chromium (Cr).

(3) Cobalt (Co).

(4) Copper (Cu).

(5) Lead (Pb).

(6) Magnesium (Mg).

(7) Manganese (Mn).

(8) Molybdenum (Mo).

(9) Nickel (Ni).

(10) Tin (Sn).

(11) Titanium (Ti).

(12) Tungsten (W).

(13) Zinc (Zn).

(14) White metal die castings.

No prefix for basin open-hearth alloy steel.
(B) Indicates acid Bessemer carbon steel.
(C) Indicates basic open-hearth carbon steel
(E) Indicates electric furnace steel.

(10XX series) Basic open-hearth and acid Bessemer carbon steel grades, non-sulfurized and non-phosphorized.
(11XX series) Basic open-hearth and acid Bessemer carbon steel grades, sulfurized but not phosphorized.
(1300 series) Manganese 1.60 to 1.90%
(23XX series) Nickel 3.50%
(25XX series) Nickel 5.0%
(31XX series) Nickel 1.25%-chromium 0.60%
(33XX series) Nickel 3.50%-chromium 1.60%
(40XX series) Molybdenum
(41XX series) Chromium molybdenum
(43XX series) Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
(46XX series) Nickel 1.65%-molybdenum 0.25%
(48XX series) Nickel 3.25%-molybdenum 0.25%
(51XX series) Chromium
(52XX series) Chromium and high carbon
(61XX series) Chromium vanadium
(86XX series) Chrome nickel molybdenum
(87XX series) Chrome nickel molybdenum
(92XX series) Silicon 2.0%-chromium
(93XX series) Nickel 3.0%-chromium-molybdenum
(94XX series) Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
(97XX series) Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
(98XX series) Nickel-chromium-molybdenum

(1) When metal-arc welding low carbon steels, the bare, thin coated or heavy coated shielded arc types of electrodes may be used. These electrodes are of low carbon type (0.10 to 0.14 percent).

(2) Low carbon sheet or plate materials that have been exposed to low temperatures should be preheated slightly to room temperature before welding.

(3) In welding sheet metal up to 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) in thickness, the plain square butt joint type of edge preparation may be used. When long seams are to be welded in these materials, the edges should be spaced to allow for shrinkage, because the deposited metal tends to pull the plates together. This shrinkage is less severe in arc welding than in gas welding, and spacing of approximately 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) will be sufficient.

(4) The backstep, or skip, welding technique should be used for short seams that are fixed in place. This will prevent warpage or distortion, and will minimize residual stresses.

(5) Heavy plates should be beveled to provide an included angle of up to 60 degrees, depending on the thickness. The parts should be tack welded in place at short intervals along the seam. The first, or root, bead should be made with an electrode small enough in diameter to obtain good penetration and fusion at the base of the joint. A 1/8 or 5/32 in. (3.2 or 4.0 mm) electrode is suitable for this purpose. The first bead should be thoroughly cleaned by chipping and wire brushing before additional layers of weld metal are deposited. Additional passes of the filler metal should be made with a 5/32 or 3/16 in. (4.0 or 4.8 mm) electrode. The passes should be made with a weaving motion for flat, horizontal, or vertical positions. When overhead welding, the best results are obtained by using string beads throughout the weld.

(6) When welding heavy sections that have been beveled from both sides, the weave beads should be deposited alternately on one side and then the other. This will reduce the amount of distortion in the welded structure. Each bead should be cleaned thoroughly to remove all scale, oxides, and slag before additional metal is deposited. The motion of the electrode should be controlled so as to make the bead uniform in thickness and to prevent undercutting and overlap at the edges of the weld. All slag and oxides must be removed from the surface of the completed weld to prevent rusting.

(1) The plates should be prepared for welding in a manner similar to that used for welding low carbon steels. When welding with low carbon steel electrodes, the welding heat should be carefully controlled to avoid overheating the weld metal and excessive penetration into the side walls of the joint. This control is accomplished by directing the electrode more toward the previously deposited filler metal adjacent to the side walls than toward the side walls directly. By using this procedure, the weld metal is caused to wash up against the side of the joint and fuse with it without deep or excessive penetration.

(2) High welding heats will cause large areas of the base metal in the fusion zone adjacent to the welds to become hard and brittle. The area of these hard zones in the base metal can be kept to a minimum by making the weld with a series of small string or weave beads, which will limit the heat input. Each bead or layer of weld metal will refine the grain in the weld immediately beneath it, and will anneal and lessen the hardness produced in the base metal by the previous bead.

(3) When possible, the finished joint should be heat treated after welding. Stress relieving is normally used when joining mild steel, and high carbon alloys should be annealed.

(4) In welding medium carbon steels with stainless steel electrodes, the metal should be deposited in string beads in order to prevent cracking of the weld metal in the fusion zone. When depositing weld metal in the upper layers of welds made on heavy sections, the weaving motion of the electrode should not exceed three electrode diameters.

(5) Each successive bead of weld should be chipped, brushed, and cleaned prior to the laying of another bead.

(1) The welding heat should be adjusted to provide good fusion at the side walls and root of the joint without excessive penetration. Control of the welding heat can be accomplished by depositing the weld metal in small string beads. Excessive puddling of the metal should be avoided, because this can cause carbon to be picked up from the base metal, which in turn will make the weld metal hard and brittle. Fusion between the filler metal and the side walls should be confined to a narrow zone. Use the surface fusion procedure prescribed for medium carbon steels (para 7-11).

(2) The same procedure for edge preparation, cleaning of the welds, and sequence of welding beads as prescribed for low and medium carbon steels also applies to high carbon steels.

(3) Small, high carbon steel parts are sometimes repaired by building up worn surfaces. When this is done, the piece should be annealed or softened by heating to a red heat and cooling slowly. The piece should then be welded or built up with medium carbon or high strength electrodes, and heat treated after welding to restore its original properties.

(1) Class I steels are used to make tools that work by a shearing or cutting actions, such as cutoff dies, shearing dies, blanking dies, and trimming dies.

(2) Class II steels are used to make tools that produce the desired shape of the part by causing the material being worked, either hot or cold, to flow under tension. This includes drawing dies, forming dies, reducing dies, forging dies, plastic molds, and die cast molding dies.

(3) Class III steels are used to make tools that act upon the material being worked by partially or wholly reforming it without changing the actual dimensions. This includes bending dies, folding dies, and twisting dies.

(4) Class IV steels are used to make dies that work under heavy pressure and that produce a flow of metal or other material caressing it into the desired form. This includes crimping dies, embossing dies, heading dies, extrusion dies, and staking dies.

(1) If the parts to be welded are small, they should be annealed or softened before welding. The edges should then be preheated up to 1000°F (538°C), depending on the carbon content and thickness of the plate. Welding should be done with either a mild steel or high strength electrode.

(2) High carbon electrodes should not be used for welding tool steels. The carbon picked up from the base metal by the filler metal will cause the weld to become glass hard, whereas the mild steel weld metal can absorb additional carbon without becoming excessively hard. The welded part should then be heat treated to restore its original properties.

(3) When welding with stainless steel electrodes, the edge of the plate should be preheated to prevent the formation of hard zones in the base metal. The weld metal should be deposited in small string beads to keep the heat input to a minimum. In general, the application procedure is the same as that required for medium and high carbon steels.

(1) Chromium alloy steels. Chromium is used as an alloying element in carbon steels to increase hardenability, corrosion resistance, and shock resistance, and gives high strength with little loss in ductility. Chromium in large amounts shortens the spark stream to one half that of the same steel without chromium, but does not affect the stream�s brightness.

(2) Nickel alloy steels. Nickel increases the toughness, strength, and ductility of steels, and lowers the hardening temperature so that an oil quench, rather than a water quench, is used for hardening. The nickel spark has a short, sharply defined dash of brilliant light just before the fork.

(3) High chromium-nickel alloy (stainless) steels. These high alloy steels cover a wide range of compositions. Their stainless, corrosion, and heat resistant properties vary with the alloy content, and are due to the formation of a very thin oxide film which forms on the surface of the metal. Sparks are straw colored near the grinding wheel, and white near the end of the streak. There is a medium volume of streaks which have a moderate number of forked bursts.

(4) Manganese alloy steels. Manganese is used in steel to produce greater toughness, wear resistance, easier hot rolling, and forging. An increase in manganese content decreases the weldability of steel. Steels containing manganese produce a spark similar to a carbon spark. A moderate increase in manganese increases the volume of the spark stream and the intensity of the bursts. A steel containing more than a normal amount of manganese will produce a spark similar to a high carbon steel with a lower manganese content.

(5) Molybdenum alloy steels. Molybdenum increases hardenability, which is the depth of hardening possible through heat treatment. The impact fatigue property of the steel is improved with up to 0.60 percent molybdenum. Above 0.60 percent molybdenum, the impact fatigue proper is impaired. Wear resistance is improved with molybdenum content above about 0.75 percent. Molybdenum is sometimes combined with chromium, tungsten, or vanadium to obtain desired properties. Steels containing this element produce a characteristic spark with a detached arrowhead similar to that of wrought iron, which can be seen even in fairly strong carbon bursts. Molybdenum alloy steels contain either nickel and/or chromium.

(6) Titanium and columbium (niobium) alloy steels. These elements are used as additional alloying agents in low carbon content, corrosion resistant steels. They support resistance to intergranular corrosion after the metal is subjected to high temperatures for a prolonged period of time.

(7) Tungsten alloy steels. Tungsten, as an alloying element in tool steel, tends to produce a fine, dense grain when used in relatively small quantities. When used in larger quantities, from 17 to 20 percent, and in combination with other alloys, tungsten produces a steel that retains its hardness at high temperatures. This element is usually used in combination with chromium or other alloying agents. In a spark test, tungsten will show a dull red color in the spark stream near the wheel. It also shortens the spark stream and decreases the size of or completely eliminates the carbon burst. A tungsten steel containing about 10 percent tungsten causes short, curved, orange spear points at the end of the carrier lines. Still lower tungsten content causes small, white bursts to appear at the end of the spear petit. Carrier lines may be from dull red to orange, depending on the other elements present, providing the tungsten content is not too high.

(8) Vanadium alloy steels. Vanadium is used to help control grain size. It tends to increase hardenability and causes marked secondary hardness, yet resists tempering. It is added to steel during manufacture to remove oxygen. Alloy steels containing vanadium produce sparks with detached arrowheads at the end of the carrier line similar to those produced by molybdenum steels.

(9) Silicon alloy steels. Silicon is added to steel to obtain greater hardenability and corrosion resistance. It is often used with manganese to obtain a strong, tough steel.

(10) High speed tool steels. These steels are usually special alloy compositions designed for cutting tools. The carbon content ranges from 0.70 to 0.80 percent. They are difficult to weld, except by the furnace induction method. A spark test will show a few long, forked spades which are red near the wheel, and straw colored near the end of the spark stream.

(1) Correct electrodes. Hydrogen is the number one enemy of sound welds in alloy steels; therefore, use only low hydrogen (MIL-E-18038 or MIL-E-22200/1) electrodes to prevent underbead cracking. Underbead cracking is caused by hydrogen picked up in the electrode coating, released into the arc, and absorbed by the molten metal.

(2) Moisture control of electrodes. If the electrodes are in an airtight container, place them, immediately upon opening the container, in a ventilated holding oven set at 250 to 300°F (121 to 149°C). In the event that the electrodes are not in an airtight container, put them in a ventilated baking oven and bake for 1-1/4 hours at 800°F (427°C). Baked electrodes should, while still warm, be placed in the holding oven until used. Electrodes must be kept dry to eliminate absorption of hydrogen. Testing for moisture should be in accordance with MIL-E-22200.

(1) General. It is important to avoid excessive heat concentration in order to allow the weld area to cool quickly. Either the heat input nomograph or the heat input calculator can be used to determine the heat input into the weld.

(2) Heat input nomograph. To use the heat input nomograph (fig. 7-9), find the volts value in column 1 and draw a line to the amps value in column 3. From the point where this line intersects colunm 2, draw another line to the in./min value in column 5. Read the heat units at the point where this second line intersects column 4. The heat units represent thousands of joules per inch. For example, at 20 volts and 300 amps, the line intersects column 2 at the value 6. At 12 in./min, the heat input is determined as 30 heat units, or 30,000 joules/in.

(3) Heat input calculator. The heat input calculator can be made by copying the pattern printed on the inside of the back cover of this manual onto plastic, light cardboard, or other suitable material and cutting out the pieces. If no suitable material is available, the calculator may be assembled by cutting the pattern out of the back cover. After the two pieces are cut out, a hole is punched in the center of each. They are then assembled using a paper fastener, or some similar device, which will allow the pieces to rotate. To determine welding heat input using the calculator, rotate until the value on the volts scale is aligned directly opposite the value on the speed (in./min) scale. The value on the amps scale will then be aligned directly opposite the calculated value for heat units. As with the nomograph, heat units represent thousands of joules per inch.

(4) Maximum heat input. Check the heat input value obtained from the nomograph or calculator against the suggested maximums in tables 7-17 and 7-18. If the calculated value is too high, adjust the amperes, travel speed, or preheat temperature until the calculated heat input is within the proper range. (The tables are applicable only to single-arc, shielded metal-arc, submerged arc, gas tungsten-arc, flux-cored arc, and gas metal-arc processes. They are not applicable to multiple-arc or electroslag welding, or other high heat input vertical-welding processes, since welds made by these in the "T-1" steels should be heat treated by quenching and tempering.) For welding conditions exceeding the range of the nomograph or calculator, the heat input can be calculated using the following formula:

(1) The most widely used type of cast iron is known as gray iron. Gray iron has a variety of compositions, but is usually such that it is primarily perlite with many graphite flakes dispersed throughout.

(2) There are also alloy cast irons which contain small amounts of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, or other elements added to provide specific properties.

(3) Another alloy iron is austenitic cast iron, which is modified by additions of nickel and other elements to reduce the transformation temperature so that the structure is austenitic at room or normal temperatures. Austenitic cast irons have a high degree of corrosion resistance.

(4) In white cast iron, almost all the carbon is in the combined form. This provides a cast iron with higher hardness, which is used for abrasion resistance.

(5) Malleable cast iron is made by giving white cast iron a special annealing heat treatment to change the structure of the carbon in the iron. The structure is changed to perlitic or ferritic, which increases its ductility.

(6) Nodular iron and ductile cast iron are made by the addition of magnesium or aluminum which will either tie up the carbon in a combined state or will give the free carbon a spherical or nodular shape, rather than the normal flake shape in gray cast iron. This structure provides a greater degree of ductility or malleability of the casting.

(7) Cast irons are widely used in agricultural equipment; on machine tools as bases, brackets, and covers; for pipe fittings and cast iron pipe; and for automobile engine blocks, heads, manifolds, and water preps. Cast iron is rarely used in structural work except for compression members. It is widely used in construction machinery for counterweights and in other applications for which weight is required.

(1) In preparing the casting for welding, it is necessary to remove all surface materials to completely clean the casting in the area of the weld. This means removing paint, grease, oil, and other foreign material from the weld zone. It is desirable to heat the weld area for a short time to remove entrapped gas from the weld zone of the base metal. The skin or high silicon surface should also be removed adjacent to the weld area on both the face and root side. The edges of a joint should be chipped out or ground to form a 60° angle or bevel. Where grooves are involved, a V groove from a 60-90° included angle should be used. The V should extend approximately 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) from the bottom of the crack. A small hole should be drilled at each end of the crack to keep it from spreading. Complete penetration welds should always be used, since a crack or defect not completely removed may quickly reappear under service conditions.

(2) Preheating is desirable for welding cast irons with any of the welding processes. It can be reduced when using extremely ductile filler metal. Preheating will reduce the thermal gradient between the weld and the remainder of the cast iron. Preheat temperatures should be related to the welding process, the filler metal type, the mass, and the complexity of the casting. Preheating can be done by any of the normal methods. Torch heating is normally used for relatively small castings weighing 30.0 lb (13.6 kg) or less. Larger parts may be furnace preheated, and in some cases, temporary furnaces are built around the part rather than taking the part to a furnace. In this way, the parts can be maintained at a high interpass temperature in the temporary furnace during welding. Preheating should be general, since it helps to improve the ductility of the material and will spread shrinkage stresses over a large area to avoid critical stresses at any one point. Preheating tends to help soften the area adjacent to the weld; it assists in degassing the casting, and this in turn reduces the possibility of porosity of the deposited weld metal; and it increases welding speed.

(3) Slow cooling or post heating improves the machinability of the heat-affected zone in the cast iron adjacent to the weld. The post cooling should be as slow as possible. This can be done by covering the casting with insulating materials to keep the air or breezes from it.

(1) Electrodes.

(2) Arc Welding.

(3) Carbon-arc welding of cast iron. Iron castings may be welded with a carbon arc, a cast iron rod, and a cast iron welding flux. The joint should be preheated by moving the carbon electrodes along the surface. This prevents too-rapid cooling after welding. The molten puddle of metal can be worked with the carbon electrode so as to move any slag or oxides that are formed to the surface. Welds made with the carbon arc cool more slowly and are not as hard as those made with the metal arc and a cast iron electrode. The welds are machinable.

(4) Oxyfuel gas welding. The oxyfuel gas process is often used for welding cast iron. Most of the fuel gases can be used. The flame should be neutral to slightly reducing. Flux should be used. Two types of filler metals are available: the cast iron rods and the copper zinc rods. Welds made with the proper cast iron electrode will be as strong as the base metal. Good color match is provided by all of these welding reds. The optimum welding procedure should be used with regard to joint preparation, preheat, and post heat. The copper zinc rods produce braze welds. There are two classifications: a manganese bronze and a low-fuming bronze. The deposited bronze has relatively high ductility but will not provide a color match.

(5) Brazing and braze welding.

(6) Gas metal arc welding. The gas metal arc welding process can be used for making welds between malleable iron and carbon steels. Several types of electrode wires can be used, including:

In all cases, small diameter electrode wire should be used at low current. With the mild steel electrode wire, the Argon-CO₂ shielding gas mixture issued to minimize penetration. In the case of the nickel base filler metal and the Copper base filler metal, the deposited filler metal is extremely ductile. The mild steel provides a fair color match. A higher preheat is usually required to reduce residual stresses and cracking tendencies.

(7) Flux-cored arc welding. This process has recently been used for welding cast irons. The more successful application has been using a nickel base flux-cored wire. This electrode wire is normally operated with CO₂ shielding gas, but when lower mechanical properties are not objectionable, it can be operated without external shielding gas. The minimum preheat temperatures can be used. The technique should minimize penetration into the cast iron base metal. Postheating is normally not required. A color match is not obtained.

(8) Studding. Cracks in large castings are sometimes repaired by studding (fig. 7-10). In this process, the fracture is removed by grinding a V groove. Holes are drilled and tapped at an angle on each side of the groove, and studs are screwed into these holes for a distance equal to the diameter of the studs, with the upper ends projecting approximately 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) above the cast iron surface. The studs should be seal welded in place by one or two beads around each stud, and then tied together by weld metal beads. Welds should be made in short lengths, and each length peened while hot to prevent high stresses or cracking upon cooling. Each bead should be allowed to cool and be thoroughly cleaned before additional metal is deposited. If the studding method cannot be applied, the edges of the joint should be chipped out or machined with a round-nosed tool to form a U groove into which the weld metal should be deposited.

(9) Other welding processes can be used for cast iron. Thermit welding has been used for repairing certain types of cast iron machine tool parts. Soldering can be used for joining cast iron, and is sometimes used for repairing small defects in small castings. Flash welding can also be used for welding cast iron.

(1) 1XXX series. These are aluminums of 99 percent or higher purity which are used primarily in the electrical and chemical industries.

(2) 2XXX series. Copper is the principal alloy in this group, which provides extremely high strength when properly heat treated. These alloys do not produce as good corrosion resistance and are often clad with pure aluminum or special-alloy aluminum. These alloys are used in the aircraft industry.

(3) 3XXX series. Manganese is the major alloying element in this group, which is non-heat-treatable. Manganese content is limited to about 1.5 percent. These alloys have moderate strength and are easily worked.

(4) 4XXX series. Silicon is the major alloying element in this group. It can be added in sufficient quantities to substantially reduce the melting point and is used for brazing alloys and welding electrodes. Most of the alloys in this group are non-heat-treatable.

(5) 5XXX series. Magnesium is the major alloying element of this group, which are alloys of medium strength. They possess good welding characteristics and good resistance to corrosion, but the amount of cold work should be limited.

(6) 6XXX series. Alloys in this group contain silicon and magnesium, which make them heat treatable. These alloys possess medium strength and good corrosion resistance.

(7) 7XXX series. Zinc is the major alloying element in this group. Magnesium is also included in most of these alloys. Together, they form a heat-treatable alloy of very high strength, which is used for aircraft frames.

(1) Aluminum is an active metal which reacts with oxygen in the air to produce a hard, thin film of aluminum oxide on the surface. The melting point of aluminum oxide is approximately 3600°F (1982°C) which is almost three times the melting point of pure aluminum (1220°F (660°C)). In addition, this aluminum oxide film absorbs moisture from the air, particularly as it becomes thicker. Moisture is a source of hydrogen, which causes porosity in aluminum welds. Hydrogen may also come from oil, paint, and dirt in the weld area. It also comes from the oxide and foreign materials on the electrode or filler wire, as well as from the base metal. Hydrogen will enter the weld pool and is soluble in molten aluminum. As the aluminum solidifies, it will retain much less hydrogen. The hydrogen is rejected during solidification. With a rapid cooling rate, free hydrogen is retained within the weld and will cause porosity. Porosity will decrease weld strength and ductility, depending on the amount.

(2) Aluminum has a high thermal conductivity and low melting temperature. It conducts heat three to five times as fast as steel, depending on the specific alloy. More heat must be put into the aluminum, even though the melting temperature of aluminum is less than half that of steel. Because of the high thermal conductivity, preheat is often used for welding thicker sections. If the temperature is too high or the time period is too long, weld joint strength in both heat-treated and work-hardened alloys may be diminished. The preheat for aluminum should not exceed 400°F (204°C), and the parts should not be held at that temperature longer than necessary. Because of the high heat conductivity, procedures should utilize higher speed welding processes using high heat input. Both the gas tungsten arc and the gas metal arc processes supply this requirement. The high heat conductivity of aluminum can be helpful, since the weld will solidify very quickly if heat is conducted away from the weld extremely fast. Along with surface tension, this helps hold the weld metal in position and makes all-position welding with gas tungsten arc and gas metal arc welding practical.

(3) The thermal expansion of aluminum is twice that of steel. In addition, aluminum welds decrease about 6 percent in volume when solidifying from the molten state. This change in dimension may cause distortion and cracking.

(4) The final reason aluminum is different from steels when welding is that it does not exhibit color as it approaches its melting temperature until it is raised above the melting point, at which time it will glow a dull red. When soldering or brazing aluminum with a torch, flux is used. The flux will melt as the temperature of the base metal approaches the temperature required. The flux dries out first, and melts as the base metal reaches the correct working temperature. When torch welding with oxyacetylene or oxyhydrogen, the surface of the base metal will melt first and assume a characteristic wet and shiny appearance. (This aids in knowing when welding temperatures are reached.) When welding with gas tungsten arc or gas metal arc, color is not as important, because the weld is completed before the adjoining area melts.

(1) Plate welding. Because of the difficulty of controlling the arc, butt and fillet welds are difficult to produce in plates less than 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) thick. When welding plate heavier than 1/8 in. (3.2 mm), a joint prepared with a 20 degree bevel will have strength equal to a weld made by the oxyacetylene process. This weld may be porous and unsuitable for liquid-or gas-tight joints. Metal-arc welding is, however, particularly suitable for heavy material and is used on plates up to 2-1/2 in. (63.5 mm) thick.

(2) Current and polarity settings. The current and polarity settings will vary with each manufacturer's type of electrodes. The polarity to be used should be determined by trial on the joints to be made.

(3) Plate edge preparation. In general, the design of welded joints for aluminum is quite consistent with that for steel joints. However, because of the higher fluidity of aluminum under the welding arc, some important general principles should be kept in mind. With the lighter gauges of aluminum sheet, less groove spacing is advantageous when weld dilution is not a factor. The controlling factor is joint preparation. A specially designed V groove that is applicable to aluminum is shown in A, figure 7-11. This type of joint is excellent where welding can be done from one side only and where a smooth, penetrating bead is desired. The effectiveness of this particular design depends upon surface tension, and should be applied on all material over 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) thick. The bottom of the special V groove must be wide enough to contain the root pass completely. This requires adding a relatively large amount of filler alloy to fill the groove. Excellent control of the penetration and sound root pass welds are obtained. This edge preparation can be employed for welding in all positions. It eliminates difficulties due to burn-through or over-penetration in the overheat and horizontal welding positions. It is applicable to all weldable base alloys and all filler alloys.

(1) General. This fast, adaptable process is used with direct current re-verse polarity and an inert gas to weld heavier thicknesses of aluminum alloys, in any position, from 1/016 in. (1.6 mm) to several inches thick. TM 5-3431-211-15 describes the operation of a typical MIG welding set.

(2) Shielding gas. Precautions should be taken to ensure the gas shield is extremely efficient. Welding grade argon, helium, or a mixture of these gases is used for aluminum welding. Argon produces a smother and more stable arc than helium. At a specific current and arc length, helium provides deeper penetration and a hotter arc than argon. Arc voltage is higher with helium, and a given change in arc length results in a greater change in arc voltage. The bead profile and penetration pattern of aluminum welds made with argon and helium differ. With argon, the bead profile is narrower and more convex than helium. The penetration pattern shows a deep central section. Helium results in a flatter, wider bead, and has a broader under-bead penetration pattern. A mixture of approximately 75 percent helium and 25 percent argon provides the advantages of both shielding gases with none of the undesirable characteristics of either. Penetration pattern and bead contour show the characteristics of both gases. Arc stability is comparable to argon. The angle of the gun or torch is more critical when welding aluminum with inert shielding gas. A 30° leading travel angle is recommended. The electrode wire tip should be oversize for aluminum. Table 7-21 provides welding procedure schedules for gas metal-arc welding of aluminum.

(3) Welding technique. The electrode wire must be clean. The arc is struck with the electrode wire protruding about 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) from the cup. A frequently used technique is to strike the arc approximately 1.0 in. (25.4 mm) ahead of the beginning of the weld and then quickly bring the arc to the weld starting point, reverse the direction of travel, and proceed with normal welding. Alternatively, the arc may be struck outside the weld groove on a starting tab. When finishing or terminating the weld, a similar practice may be followed by reversing the direction of welding, and simultaneously increasing the speed of welding to taper the width of the molten pool prior to breaking the arc. This helps to avert craters and crater cracking. Runoff tabs are commonly used. Having established the arc, the welder moves the electrode along the joint while maintaining a 70 to 85 degree forehand angle relative to the work. A string bead technique is normally preferred. Care should be taken that the forehand angle is not changed or increased as the end of the weld is approached. Arc travel speed controls the bead size. When welding aluminum with this process, it is must important that high travel speeds be maintained. When welding uniform thicknesses, the electrode to work angle should be equal on both sides of the weld. When welding in the horizontal position, best results are obtained by pointing the gun slightly upward. When welding thick plates to thin plates, it is helpful to direct the arc toward the heavier section. A slight backhand angle is sometimes helpful when welding thin sections to thick sections. The root pass of a joint usually requires a short arc to provide the desired penetration. Slightly longer arcs and higher arc voltages may be used on subsequent passes.

The wire feeding equipment for aluminum welding must be in good adjustment for efficient wire feeding. Use nylon type liners in cable assemblies. Proper drive rolls must be selected for the aluminum wire and for the size of the electrode wire. It is more difficult to push extremely small diameter aluminum wires through long gun cable assemblies than steel wires. For this reason, the spool gun or the newly developed guns which contain a linear feed motor are used for the small diameter electrode wires. Water-cooled guns are required except for low-current welding. Both the constant current (CC) power source with matching voltage sensing wire feeder and the constant voltage (CV) power source with constant speed wire feeder are used for welding aluminum. In addition, the constant speed wire feeder is sometimes used with the constant current power source. In general, the CV system is preferred when welding on thin material and using all diameter electrode wire. It provides better arc starting and regulation. The CC system is preferred when welding thick material using larger electrode wires. The weld quality seems better with this system. The constant current power source with a moderate drop of 15 to 20 volts per 100 amperes and a constant speed wire feeder provide the most stable power input to the weld and the highest weld quality.

(4) Joint design. Edges may be prepared for welding by sawing, machining, rotary planing, routing or arc cutting. Acceptable joint designs are shown in figure 7-12.

(1) The gas tungsten arc welding process is used for welding the thinner sections of aluminum and aluminum alloys. There are several precautions that should be mentioned with respect to using this process.

(2) Alternating current.

g. Square Wave Alternating Current Welding (TIG).

h. Shielded Metal-Arc Welding. In the shielded metal-arc welding process, a heavy dipped or extruded flux coated electrode is used with dcrp. The electrodes are covered similarly to conventional steel electrodes. The flux coating provides a gaseous shield around the arc and molten aluminum puddle, and chemically combines and removes the aluminum oxide, forming a slag. When welding aluminum, the process is rather limited due to arc spatter, erratic arc control, limitations on thin material, and the corrosive action of the flux if it is not removed properly.

i. Shielded Carbon-Arc Welding. The shielded carbon-arc welding process can be used in joining aluminum. It requires flux and produces welds of the same appearance, soundness, and structure as those produced by either oxyacetylene or oxyhydrogen welding. Shielded carbon-arc welding is done both manually and automatically. A carbon arc is used as a source of heat while filler metal is supplied from a separate filler rod. Flux must be removed after welding; otherwise severe corrosion will result. Manual shielded carbon-arc welding is usually limited to a thickness of less than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), accomplished by the same method used for manual carbon arc welding of other material. Joint preparation is similar to that used for gas welding. A flux covered rod is used.

j. Atomic Hydrogen Welding. This welding process consists of maintaining an arc between two tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas. The process can be either manual or automatic with procedures and techniques closely related to those used in oxyacetylene welding. Since the hydrogen shield surrounding the base metal excludes oxygen, smaller amounts of flux are required to combine or remove aluminum oxide. Visibility is increased, there are fewer flux inclusions, and a very sound metal is deposited.

k. Stud Welding.

l. Electron Beam Welding. Electron beam welding is a fusion joining process in which the workpiece is bombarded with a dense stream of high velocity electrons, and virtually all of the kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into heat upon impact. Electron beam welding usually takes place in an evacuated chamber. The chamber size is the limiting factor on the weldment size. Conventional arc and gas heating melt little more than the surface. Further penetration comes solely by conduction of heat in all directions from this molten surface spot. The fusion zone widens as it depends. The electron beam is capable of such intense local heating that it almost instantly vaporizes a hole through the entire joint thickness. The walls of this hole are molten, and as the hole is moved along the joint, more metal on the advancing side of the hole is melted. This flaws around the bore of the hole and solidifies along the rear side of the hole to make the weld. The intensity of the beam can be diminished to give a partial penetration with the same narrow configuration. Electron beam welding is generally applicable to edge, butt, fillet, melt-thru lap, and spot welds. Filler metal is rarely used except for surfacing.

m. Resistance Welding.

n. Gas welding. Gas welding has been done on aluminum using both oxyacetylene and oxyhydrogen flames. In either case, an absolutely neutral flame is required. Flux is used as well as a filler rod. The process also is not too popular because of low heat input and the need to remove flux.

o. Electroslag welding. Electroslag welding is used for joining pure aluminum, but is not successful for welding the aluminum alloys. Submerged arc welding has been used in some countries where inert gas is not available.

p. Other processes. Most of the solid state welding processes, including friction welding, ultrasonic welding, and cold welding are used for aluminums. Aluminum can also be joined by soldering and brazing. Brazing can be accomplished by most brazing methods. A high silicon alloy filler material is used.

(1) High thermal conductivity.

(2) High thermal expansion coefficient.

(3) Relatively low melting point.

(4) Hot short or brittle at elevated temperatures.

(5) Very fluid molten metal.

(6) High electrical conductivity.

(7) Strength due to cold working.

(1) The gas metal arc welding process is used for welding thicker materials. It is faster, has a higher deposition rate, and usually results in less distortion. It can produce high-quality welds in all positions. It uses direct current, electrode positive. The CV type power source is recommended.

(2) Metal-arc welding of copper differs from steel welding as indicated below:

(3) Most copper and copper alloy coated electrodes are designed for use with reverse (electrode positive) polarity. Electrodes for use with alternating currents are available.

(4) Peening is used to reduce stresses in the joints. Flat-nosed tools are used for this purpose. Numerous moderate blows should be used, because vigorous blows could cause crystallizations or other defects in the joint.

(1) Copper can be successfully welded by the gas tungsten-arc welding process. The weldability of each copper alloy group by this process depends upon the alloying elements used. For this reason, no one set of welding conditions will cover all groups.

(2) Direct current straight polarity is generally used for welding most copper alloys. However, high frequency alternating current or direct current reverse polarity is used for beryllium copper or copper alloy sheets less than 0.05 in. (0.13 cm) thick.

(3) For some copper alloys, a flux is recommended. However, a flux containing fluoride should never be used since the arc will vaporize the fluoride and irritate the lungs of the operator.

(1) This process for copper welding is most satisfactory for oxygen-free copper, although it can be used for welding oxygen-bearing copper up to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) in thickness. The root opening for thinner material should be 3/16 in. (4.8 mm), and 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) for heavier material. The electrode should be graphite type carbon, sharpened to a long tapered point at least equal to the size of the welding rod. Phosphor bronze welding rods are used most frequently in this process.

(2) The arc should be sharp and directed entirely on the weld metal, even at the start. If possible, all carbon-arc welding should be done in the flat welding position or on a moderate slope.

(1) Magnesium oxide surface coating which increases with an increase in temperature.

(2) High thermal conductivity.

(3) Relatively high thermal expansion coefficient.

(4) Relatively low melting temperature.

(5) The absence of color change as temperature approaches the melting point.

(1) Grease should be removed by the vapor degreasing system in which trichloroethylene is utilized or with a hot alkaline cleaning compound. Grease may also be removed by dipping small parts in dry cleaning solvent or mineral spirits paint thinner.

(2) Mechanical cleaning can be done satisfactorily with 160 and 240 grit aluminum oxide abrasive cloth, stainless steel wool, or by wire brushing.

(3) Immediately after the grease, oil, and other foreign materials have been removed from the surface, the metal should be dipped for 3 minutes in a hot solution with the following composition:

The bath should be operated at 70°F (21°C). The work should be removed from the solution, thoroughly rinsed with hot water, and air dried. The welding rod should also be cleaned to obtain the best results.

(1) Goggles, gloves, and other equipment designed to protect the eyes and skin of the welder must be worn.

(2) The possibility of fire caused by welding magnesium metal is very remote. The temperature of initial fusion must be reached before solid magnesium metal ignites. Sustained burning occurs only if this temperature is maintained. Finely divided magnesium particles such as grinding dust, filings, shavings, borings, and chips present a fire hazard. They ignite readily if proper precautions are not taken. Magnesium scrap of this type is not common to welding operations. If a magnesium fire does start, it can be extinguished with dry sand, dry powdered soapstone, or dry cast iron chips. The preferred extinguishing agents for magnesium fires are graphite base powders.

(1) Because of its rapid oxidation when magnesium is heated to its melting point, an inert gas (argon or helium) is used to shield metal during arc welding. This process requires no flux and permits high welding speeds, with sound welds of high strength.

(2) Direct current machines of the constant current type operating on straight polarity (electrode positive) and alternating current machines are used with a high frequency current superimposed on the welding current. Both alternating and direct current machines are used for thin gauge material. However, because of better penetrating power, alternating current machines are used on material over 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) thick. Helium is considered more practical than argon for use with direct current reverse polarity. However, three times as much helium by volume as argon is required for a given amount of welding. Argon is used with alternating current.

(3) The tungsten electrodes are held in a water cooled torch equipped with required electrical cables and an inlet and nozzle for the inert gas.

(4) The two magnesium alloys, in the form of sheet, plate, and extrusion, that are most commonly used for applications involving welding are ASTM-1A (Fed Spec QQ-M-54), which is alloyed with manganese, and ASTM-AZ31A (Fed SPec QQ-44), which is alloyed with aluminum, manganese, and zinc.

(5) In general, less preparation is required for welding with alternating current than welding with direct current because of the greater penetration obtained. Sheets up to 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) thickness may be welded from one side with a square butt joint. Sheets over 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) thickness should be welded from both sides whenever the nature of the structure permits, as sounder welds may be obtained with less warpages. For a double V joint, the included angle should extend from both sides to leave a minimum 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) root face in the center of the sheets. When welding a double V joint, the back of the first bead should be chipped out using a chipping hammer fitted with a cape chisel. Remove oxide film, dirt, and incompletely fused areas before the second bead is added. In this manner, maximum soundness is obtained.

(6) The gas should start flowing a fraction of a second before the arc is struck. The arc is struck by brushing the electrode over the surface. With alternating current, the arc should be started and stopped by means of a remote control switch. The average arc length should be about 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) when using helium and 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) when using argon. Current data and rod diameter are shown in table 7-24.

(7) When welding with alternating current, maximum penetration is obtained when the end of the electrode is held flush with or slightly below the surface of the work. The torch should be held nearly perpendicular to the surface of the work, and the welding rod added from a position as neatly parallel with the work as possible (fig. 7-14). The torch should have a slightly leading travel angle.

(8) Welding should progress in a straight line at a uniform speed. There should be no rotary or weaving motion of the rod or torch, except for larger corner joints or fillet welds. The welding rod can be fed either continuously or intermittently. Care should be taken to avoid withdrawing the heated end from the protective gaseous atmosphere during the welding operation. The cold wire filler metal should be brought in as near to horizontal as possible (on flat work). The filler wire is added to the leading edge of the weld puddle. Runoff tabs are recommended for welding any except the thinner metals. Forehand welding, in which the welding rod precedes the torch in the direction of welding, is preferred. If stops are necessary, the weld should be started about 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) back from the end of the weld when welding is resumed.

(9) Because of the high coefficient of thermal expansion and conductivity, control of distortion in the welding of magnesium requires jigging, small beads, and a properly selected welding sequence to help minimize distortion. Magnesium parts can be straightened by holding them in position with clamps and heating to 300 to 400°F (149 to 204°C). If this heating is done by local torch application, care must be taken not to overheat the metal and destroy its properties.

(10) If cracking is encountered during the welding of certain magnesium alloys, starting and stopping plates may be used to overcome this difficult. These plates consist of scrap pieces of magnesium stock butted against opposite ends of the joint to be welded as shown in A, figure 7-15. The weld is started on one of the abutting plates, continued across the junction along the joint to be welded, and stopped on the opposite abutting plate. If a V groove is used, the abutting plates should also be grooved. An alternate method is to start the weld in the middle of the joint and weld to each edge (B, fig. 7-15). Cracking may also be minimized by preheating the plate and holding the jig to 200 to 400°F (93 to 204°C) by increasing the speed of the weld.

(11) Filler reds must be of the same composition as the alloy being joined when arc welding. One exception is when welding AZ31B. In this case, grade C rod (MIL-R-6944), which produces a stronger weld metal, is used to reduce cracking.

(12) Residual stress should be relieved through heat treatment. Stress relief is essential so that lockup stresses will not cause stress corrosion cracking. The recommended stress relieving treatment for arc welding magnesium sheet is shown in table 7-25.

(13) The only cleaning required after arc welding of magnesium alloys is wire brushing to remove the slight oxide deposit on the surface. Brushing may leave traces of iron, which may cause galvanic corrosion. If necessary, clean as in b above. Arc welding smoke can be removed by immersing the parts for 1/2 to 2 minutes at 180 to 212°F (82 to 100°C), in a solution composed of 16 oz (453 g) tetrasodium pyrophosphate (Na₄P₂O₇), 16 oz (453 g) sodium metaborate (NaBO₂), and enough water to make 1 gallon (3.8 1).

(14) Welding procedure schedules for GTAW of magnesium (TIG welding) are shown in table 7-26.

(1) Titanium is a soft, silvery white, medium strength metal with very good corrosion resistance. It has a high strength to weight ratio, and its tensile strength increases as the temperature decreases. Titanium has low impact and creep strengths. It has seizing tendencies at temperatures above 800°F (427°C).

(2) Titanium has a high affinity for oxygen and other gases at elevated temperatures, and for this reason, cannot be welded with any process that utilizes fluxes, or where heated metal is exposed to the atmosphere. Minor amounts of impurities cause titanium to become brittle.

(3) Titanium has the characteristic known as the ductile-brittle transition. This refers to a temperature at which the metal breaks in a brittle manner, rather than in a ductile fashion. The recrystallization of the metal during welding can raise the transition temperature. Contamination during the high temperate period and impurities can raise the transition temperature period and impurities can raise the transition temperature so that the material is brittle at room temperatures. If contamination occurs so that transition temperature is raised sufficiently, it will make the welding worthless. Gas contamination can occur at temperatures below the melting point of the metal. These temperatures range from 700°F (371°C) up to 1000°F (538°C).

(4) At room temperature, titanium has an impervious oxide coating that resists further reaction with air. The oxide coating melts at temperatures considerably higher than the melting point of the base metal and creates problems. The oxidized coating may enter molten weld metal and create discontinuities which greatly reduce the strength and ductility of the weld.

(5) The procedures for welding titanium and titanium alloys are similar to other metals. Some processes, such as oxyacetylene or arc welding processes using active gases, cannot be used due to the high chemical activity of titanium and its sensitivity to embrittlement by contamination. Processes that are satisfactory for welding titanium and titanium alloys include gas shielded metal-arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, and spot, seam, flash, and pressure welding. Special procedures must be employed when using the gas shielded welding processes. These special procedures include the use of large gas nozzles and trailing shields to shield the face of the weld from air. Backing bars that provide inert gas to shield the back of the welds from air are also used. Not only the molten weld metal, but the material heated above 1000°F (538°C) by the weld must be adequately shielded in order to prevent embrittlement. All of these processes provide for shielding of the molten weld metal and heat affected zones. Prior to welding, titanium and its alloys must be free of all scale and other material that might cause weld contamination.

(1) Surface cleaning is important in preparing titanium and its alloys for welding. Proper surface cleaning prior to welding reduces contamination of the weld due to surface scale or other foreign materials. Small amounts of contamination can render titanium completely brittle.

(2) Several cleaning procedures are used, depending on the surface condition of the base and filler metals. Surface conditions most often encountered are as follows:

(3) Metals that are scale free can be cleaned by simple decreasing.

(4) Metals with light oxide scale should be cleaned by acid pickling. In order to minimize hydrogen pickup, pickling solutions for this operation should have a nitric acid concentration greater than 20 percent. Metals to be welded should be pickled for 1 to 20 minutes at a bath temperature from 80 to 160°F (27 to 71°C). After pickling, the parts are rinsed in hot water.

(5) Metals with a heavy scale should be cleaned with sand, grit, or vaporblasting, molten sodium hydride salt baths, or molten caustic baths. Sand, grit, or vaporblasting is preferred where applicable. Hydrogen pickup may occur with molten bath treatments, but it can be minimized by controlling the bath temperature and pickling time. Bath temperature should be held at about 750 to 850°F (399 to 454°C). Parts should not be pickled any longer than necessary to remove scale. After heavy scale is removed, the metal should be pickled as described in (4) above.

(6) Surfaces of metals that have undergone oxyacetylene flame cutting operations have a very heavy scale, and may contain microscopic cracks due to excessive contamination of the metallurgical characteristics of the alloys. The best cleaning method for flame cut surfaces is to remove the contaminated layer and any cracks by machining operations. Certain alloys can be stress relieved immediately after cutting to prevent the propagation of these cracks. This stress relief is usually made in conjunction with the cutting operation.

(1) General. Both the MIG and TIG welding processes are used to weld titanium and titanium alloys. They are satisfactory for manual and automatic installations. With these processes, contamination of the molten weld metals and adjacent heated zones is minimized by shielding the arc and the root of the weld with inert gases (see (2)(b)) or special backing bars (see (2)(c)). In some cases, inert gas filler welding chambers (see (3)) are used to provide the required shielding. When using the TIG welding process, a thoriated tungsten electrode should be used. The electrode size should be the smallest diameter that will carry the welding current. The electrode should be ground to a point. The electrode may extend 1-1/2 times its diameter beyond the end of the nozzle. Welding is done with direct current, electrode negative (straight polarity). Welding procedure for TIG welding titanium are shown in table 7-28. Selection of the filler metal will depend upon the titanium alloys being joined. When welding pure titanium, a pure titanium wire should be used. When welding a titanium alloy, the next lowest strength alloy should be used as a filler wire. Due to the dilution which will take place dining welding, the weld deposit will pick up the required strength. The same considerations are true when MIG welding titanium.

(2) Shielding.

(3) Welding chambers.

(4) Joint designs. Joint designs for titanium are similar to those used for other metals. For welding a thin sheet, the tungsten-arc process generally is used. With this process, butt welds may be made with or without filler rod, depending on the thickness of the joint and fitup. Special shearing procedures sometimes are used so that the root opening does not exceed 8 percent of the sheet thickness. If fitup is this good, filler rod is not required. If fitup is not this good, filler metal is added to obtain full thickness joints. In welding thicker sheets (greater than 0.09 in. (2.3 mm)), both the tungsten-arc and consumable electrode processes are used with a root opening. For welding titanium plates, bars, or forgings, both the tungsten-arc and consumable electrode processes also are used with single and double V joints. In all cases, good weld penetration may be obtained with excessive drop through. However, penetration and dropthrough are controlled more easily by the use of proper backing fixtures.

(5) Welding variables.

(6) Weld defects.

(7) Availability of welding filler wire. Most of the titanium alloys which are being used in arc welding applications are available as wire for use as welding filler metal. These alloys are listed below:

(1) The nickel alloys will acquire a surface or coating which melts at a temperature approximately 1000°F (538°C) above the melting point of the base metal.

(2) The nickel alloys are susceptible to embrittlement at welding temperatures by lead, sulfur, phosphorus, and some low-temperature metals and alloys.

(3) Weld penetration is less than expected with other metals.

(1) Clean all surfaces to be welded either mechanically by machine, sand-blasting, grinding, or with abrasive cloth; or chemically by pickling.

(2) Plates having U or V joints should be assembled, and if nickel clad steel, should be tacked on the steel side to prevent warping and distortion. After it is determined that the joint is even and flat, complete the weld on the steel side. Chip out and clean the nickel side and weld. If the base metal on both sides is nickel, clean out the groove on the unwelded side prior to beginning the weld on that side.

(3) If desired, the nickel side may be completed first. However, the steel side must be tacked and thoroughly cleaned and beveled (or gouged) down to the root of the nickel weld prior to welding.

(4) Lap and corner joints are successfully welded by depositing a bead of nickel metal into the root and then weaving successive beads over the root weld.

(5) The arc drawn for nickel or nickel alloy welding should be slightly shorter than that used in normal metal-arc welding. A 1/16 to 1/8 in. (1.6 to 3.2 mm) arc is a necessity.

(6) Any position weld can be accomplished that can be satisfactorily welded by normal metal-arc welding of steel.

(1) Almost all the welding processes can be used for welding the nickel alloys. In addition, they can be joined by brazing and soldering.

(2) Welding nickel alloys. The most popular processes for welding nickel alloys are the shielded metal arc welding process, the gas tungsten arc welding process, and the gas metal arc welding process. Process selection depends on the normal factors. When shielded metal arc welding is used the procedures are essentially the same as those used for stainless steel welding.

The welding procedure schedule for using gas tungsten arc welding (TIG) is shown by table 7-29. The welding procedure schedule for gas metal arc welding (MIG) is shown by table 7-30. The procedure information set forth on these tables will provide starting points for developing the welding procedures.

(3) No postweld heat treatment is required to maintain or restore corrosion resistance of the nickel alloys. Heat treatment is required for precipitating hardening alloys. Stress relief may be required to meet certain specifications to avoid stress corrosion cracking in applications involving hydrofluoric acid vapors or caustic solutions.